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Indian Roots of Southeast Asian Cuisine • Indian Origins of Malay & Indonesian Food
Curry stingray in Johor, Malaysia
When we discuss Indian heritage cuisine in Singapore and Malaysia, most of us assume or presuppose that Indian cuisine was brought here by indentured labourers during the British colonial era (from the 1800s). That is only partially true.
Indian cuisine have deeper, much older, more pervasive influence in Southeast Asian cuisine (not just Singapore and Malaysia) that dates back over 2,000 years.
This post is about the origins of that deep Indian influence, often overlooked today buried under many layers of our multicultural influences and time. As the dishes evolved and become localised (indigenised) over 2,000 years of adaptation, their Indian origins become less obvious.
Indianisation is a gradual process that took place across Southeast Asia for over a thousand years from around the 1st to the 13th century. The kingdoms and empires of Southeast Asia adopted Indian language (Sanskrit), religion (Hinduism and Buddhism), statecraft and governance systems, legal system, the performing arts and other aspects of life including cuisine.
Mohinga, Myanmar's national dish
Indianisation spread throughout Southeast Asia from Myanmar, to Indochina, the Malay archipelago and Malay peninsula.
The key to understanding Indianisation of Southeast Asia is the Maritime Silk Road.
The Maritime Silk Road which began around 200BC connected kingdoms from Arabia to India, through Southeast Asia to China. It was an extensive sea network facilitating trade between Arabia, India, Southeast Asia and China.
The Chinese exported silk, ceramics, silver, etc. They imported glass from Arabia while India exported sandalwood, textile and spices. Southeast Asia was a source as gold, tin and also spices. At that time, the task of plying the oceans serving the Maritime Silk Road fell mostly on the shoulders of Indian mariners and traders (Tamils from India's Malabar west and Coromandel Coasts).
Indian Vaishya caste traders came to Southeast Asia to trade and look for gold as there was high demand for gold in India. On the same boats, were Kshatriya caste warriors who provided security against sea pirates. There were also Brahmin priests / scholars who served the spiritual needs of the people onboard as the journeys were long and treacherous. So, priests, traders and warriors travelled together in the same trade mission. Each boat was a sailing microcosm of an Indian kingdom.
During the days of sail, mariners came with the prevailing monsoon wind and returned home with the next monsoon. The interval between the monsoons can last a few months, hence friendly stopovers were essential. Southeast Asia sits strategically between India and China. There were many locations in Southeast Asia which were ideal for sea ports facilitating the Maritime Silk Road.
These ports allowed the mariners to rest, replenish their supplies and stocks, and to trade. The Indian mariners and traders also mingled with the locals. Many such sea ports were established by collaboration between Indian mariners / traders and local chieftains to profit from the great wealth that trading brought.
At that time, Indian civilisation already reached an advanced state. The chieftains of emerging Southeast Asian sea ports / kingdoms looked to India for models of advanced statecraft and organisation - ideas which the traders and learned Brahmins shared with the locals.
Sanskrit inscription on a yupa sacrificial post from the ancient Kutai kingdom, Indonesia Image source: Wikipedia
The locals adopted Indian language (sanskrit), religion (Hinduism and Buddhism), statecraft and governance, law, the arts, and naturally cuisine as well. The local rulers engaged learned Brahmins as advisors. Once the chieftain / royalty adopted Hinduism or Buddhism, their subjects followed. Hence, the ancient kingdoms in Indonesia and Indochina were Hindu and Buddhist.
Srivijaya empire from the 7th to 13th century CC BY-SA 4.0, Link
The sea ports facilitating the Maritime Silk Road became highly prosperous. Kingdoms and empires such as the Srivijaya and Majaphit in Indonesia controlling the Maritime Silk Road become powerful.
The Singapore stone, a fragment from the slabs that once guarded the Singapore River had undecipherable Sanskrit inscriptions. Image source: Wikipedia
Indianisation of Southeast Asia took place gradually over a period of around a thousand years from the 1st century to around the 1300s. It started to fade with the arrival of Islam in Sumatra in the 1300s and later the Europeans in Malacca in 1511. Chinese influence through migration grew after the sea expeditions of Admiral Zheng He between 1405 to 1433.
The founding of the Funan empire is one example of how Indianisation took place. Around 68, an Indian trading ship led by Kaundinya, a prince from Kalinga (today's Odisha state), was attacked by raiders led by princess Soma, daughter of the local chieftain in today's Cambodia.
The traders (and warriors onboard) led by Kaundinya successfully fended off their attackers but the ship was damaged and was beached for repairs. Princess Soma impressed by Kaundinya's bravery, sent him a marriage proposal which he accepted.
Their marriage led to the founding of the kingdom of Funan which ruled most of Indochina from 68 to 550. Funan was the first Indianised kingdom in Indochina.
So are the sanskrit foundations of contemporary Southeast Asian languages such as Myanmese, Thai, Lao and Cambodian.
Less obvious but equally pervasive, the ancient Indianisation of Southeast Asia can also be seen in Malay, Indonesian, Myanmese, Thai, Lao, Cambodian and even Vietnamese cuisine. Spices and herbs from India such as black pepper, cinnamon, turmeric, and cardamom which were part of Indian cuisine and medicine for thousands of years were introduced to Southeast Asia during the Indianisation era. These are still essentials in many Southeast Asian dishes today (which we take for granted).
Southeast Asian cuisine adopted and retained its Indian influences to this day. Digging deeper can uncover the Indian roots of some of our dishes.
However, today most commentators regard the cone of rice as representative of Mount Semeru in East Java. The side dishes are said to represent the flora and fauna found around Mount Semeru. Today, there are 5 or 7 side dishes (chicken, fish, vegetables, egg) but never an even number.
Nasi Tumpeng kuning's yellow colour (from turmeric spice) is one of the sacred colours of Hinduism and symbolises learning, knowledge, joy and renewal. Yellow is often featured in the clothes of Hindu deities, such as Vishnu, Krishna and Ganesha.
(Today, Nasi Tumpeng cone rice comes in different colours including the trendy blue tint from butterfly pea flowers.)
Today, Nasi Tumpeng is served during thanksgiving slametan rituals conducted for highly significant events like birth, circumcision, marriage, Prophet's birthday, etc.
The slametan, central to Javanese village life, is a communal feast involving prayers and religious rites. The shared meal is blessed by the rites. The slametan is Hindu in origin but have since been closely coupled with the practice of Islam in Java.
I have only briefly mentioned one example, what other Southeast Asian dishes can you think of that traces its deep roots back to the Indianisation era from the 1st to the 13th century?
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