Origin of Arak Bali · Mongol Invasion of Java & Rise of Majapahit Empire

When in Bali, try Arak Bali, the local traditional liquor (besides the usual international brands). Arak Bali is distilled from fermented coconut flower sap. Alcohol content ranges from 20% to a potent 50%.

Oh wait..., isn't Indonesia a Muslim majority country? How did Arak Bali become a Bali icon along with Babi Guling (Balinese roast pig)?

There are three types of traditional alcoholic beverages in Bali - Tuak, Brem, and Arak. 

Note: This video is made in Kelantan, Malaysia but it is the clearest video I can find on how Tuak is made.

Tuak is made by fermentation of coconut palm flower sap. Alcohol content is up to 10% but often just 5%. Brem is similar to Tuak in strength but made by yeast fermentation of glutinous rice. (In Johor, Tuak is known as Toddy.)

Arak is made by distillation of fermented coconut palm flower sap (i.e. Tuak). Alcohol content is 15% to up to 50%. Arak, a clear liquor, is drank neat or as a cocktail. Popular concoctions are Arak Madu (with honey) and Arak Attack (with Sprite and lemon).

Tuak and Brem are like wines whereas Arak is a distilled liquor. Tuak and Brem have Austronesian roots i.e. they appeared probably more than 3,000 years ago with the original settlers of Bali (migrating from south China, through Taiwan and the Philippines). Arak is much more recent.

Distilled alcoholic beverages first appeared in China during the Jin dynasty (1115 - 1234) in the twelfth century. The Jin dynasty was founded by Jurchen (east Manchurians), the first nomadic people to rule part of China.

The Mongolians were the second nomadic people to rule China under the Yuan dynasty (1271 - 1368). Airaq or fermented mare's milk is the national drink of Mongolia. The distilled version of Airaq is known as Arkhi.

The use of Arak in Indonesia is mentioned in Nagarakretagama written in the fourteenth century. How and when did the technology of distillation and distilled beverages arrived in Indonesia?

I mentioned Mongolian Airaq - did the Mongols have something to do with it?

Majapahit Surya and Naga dated 1300s

To make a short story long, we go back in time to the founding of the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire. More specifically, the time when the Javanese defeated a Mongolian invasion ordered by the mighty Kublai Khan in 1293.

From the 1270s, the Kediri kingdom in central Java was a vassal state of Singhasari kingdom in east Java. The Singhasari kingdom was ascendent and at its height controlled the sea lanes from the Riaus, through the Java Sea to the Banda Sea in the east. Both Kediri and Singhasari were Hindu kingdoms.

At that time, China was ruled by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271 - 1368). In 1289, emperor Kublai Khan sent out emissaries to the South Seas and demanded tributes from the kingdoms there in return for protection.

The king of Singhasari, Kertanegara rebuffed Kublai Khan's emissaries but the latter persisted. The irritated king Kertanegara sliced off the ear of Kublai Khan's emissary and branded his face with a hot iron before sending him home.

This, of course, infuriated Kublai Khan who promptly despatched a naval expedition of 1,000 junks and 30,000 troops to teach the upstart, king Kertanegara a lesson. The expedition was led by a Mongolian general, a Uighur general and a Chinese general. As Mongols were horsemen, most of the troops were Chinese drawn from Jiangxi and coastal Fujian provinces.

By the time Kublai Khan's fleet reached Java in 1292, a lot had changed. King Kertanegara of Singhasari kingdom had died, killed in 1292 by king Jayakatwang of rival Kediri kingdom. King Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, escaped to Truwolan where he established the Majapahit kingdom.

When the Yuan fleet arrived in Java, king Raden Wijaya made a deal with the Yuan generals. King Raden Wijaya agreed to be a vassal state of Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty. Furthermore, king Raden Wijaya will join forces with Yuan troops to attack king Jayakatwang's Kediri kingdom (to avenge his father-in-law).

The combined Yuan and Majapahit forces promptly routed the Kediri forces and killed king Jayakatwang in 1293. King Raden Wijaya then returned to Truwolan on the pretext of preparing his tribute for Kublai Khan. En route, king Raden Wijaya killed the Yuan troops sent to escort him home. Raden Wijaya and his troops then ambushed the remaining Yuan soldiers still drunk (presumably from Arkhi) celebrating their victory. Many Yuan troops were killed while the rest dashed onto their junks and fled home. Kublai Khan's expedition ended in humiliating defeat.

Kublai Khan ordered a larger expedition, this time three times the size with 100,000 troops. But, Kublai Khan died in 1294 and the revenge was called off.

CC BY-SA 4.0, Link

King Raden Wijaya then went on to preside over Majapahit's expansion. At its height, the Majapahit empire controlled the whole of Nusantara (except for west Java under the Sunda kingdom) from the Malay peninsula, through Sumatra to the Banda islands.

Primitive distillery

No one is sure when did distillation technology and distilled beverages arrived in Indonesia.

Jiří Jákl in his book Alcohol in Early Java: Its Social and Cultural Significance suggested that it is "quite plausible" that it was the Mongol invasion that brought Arak and distillation technology to Java. Arak was used in religious rites, as medicine and enjoyed as a social beverage since the Majapahit era (1293 - 1527).

How did Arak ended up only in Bali in Indonesia?

Islam arrived in north Sumatra in the thirteenth century brought by Arab and Indian traders / missionaries. The first Islamic kingdom, the sultanate of Samudera Pasai in north Sumatra was founded in 1267. Islam spread east to the Malacca sultanate (in 1409) and beyond, while the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire receded. The Majapahit finally dissolved in 1527, its loyalists and Hindus migrated to Bali, the last bastion of Hinduism in Indonesia.

Today, 87% of Indonesians profess Islam. Less than 2% profess Hinduism, of whom nearly 90% live in Bali. Islam prohibits consumption of alcohol, so Arak Bali is almost exclusively made and enjoyed in Bali. Today, Arak Bali and Babi Guling are icons of Bali.

Next time you enjoy an Arak Madu or Arak Attack, consider its fascinating history. It is ironic that Arak is a Mongolian legacy, a reminder of how Javanese defied and prevailed over the mighty Khan over 700 years ago. It is also a reminder of the rise and fall of the great Majapahit empire, the grandest of all ancient empires of Indonesia.

Written by Tony Boey on 12 Feb 2022

References:

Alcohol in Early Java: Its Social and Cultural Significance by Jiří Jákl

An Unholy Brew: Alcohol in Pre-Islamic Java 

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Image of Arak Bali courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Airaq courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Singhasari temple courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Balinese drink street wine courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Arak distillery courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Yuan dynasty navy courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Surya and Naga courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of nagarakretagama courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Arak Madu courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of Kublai Khan courtesy of Wikipedia.